La exclusión de las minorías en la actividad turística

Resumen

La Organización Mundial del Turismo y la Organización de las Naciones Unidas han incorporado elementos para frenar la discriminación y el rechazo de las minorías en sus desplazamientos turísticos, así como para facilitar el acceso justo e inclusivo para todos en la industria del turismo. La academia apenas ha analizado esta discriminación desde la perspectiva de los viajeros de colectivos minoritarios, por lo que este estudio pretende averiguar hasta qué punto se ha subsanado esta segregación que las minorías constatan en sus viajes. Concretamente, se centra en analizar la discriminación (o ausencia de ésta) que la comunidad que en los Estados Unidos se identifica como BIPOC (Black, Indigenous, and People of Color) vive mientras viaja como turista, así como la existencia o falta de diversidad y representación dentro de la industria turística. Se trata de un estudio exploratorio con un análisis cualitativo de datos primarios obtenidos a través de un cuestionario a 261 personas y de 14 entrevistas en profundidad a miembros BIPOC que corroboran la permanencia de este trato discriminatorio y la percepción de falta de oportunidades laborales y de representatividad en las actividades turísticas. Se concluye que, a pesar de la proclama de códigos éticos de las organizaciones no gubernamentales, todavía queda un arduo camino por recorrer.

Palabras clave:

Turismo, Discriminación, Inclusión, Exclusión, Minorías, BIPOC

Citas

Absher, A. (2018), Film and Television Reviews: Green Book. The Popular Culture Studies Journal, 7 (1), 212-214.

Aguilar Morales, J. (2011), Prejuicios, estereotipos y discriminación. Asociación Oaxaqueña de Psicología. México

Andrews, E. (2019). The Green Book: The Black Travelers’ Guide to Jim Crow America. Actualizado el 3 de marzo. https://www.history.com/news/the-green-book-the-black-travelers-guideto-jim-crow-america

Arreola, D. (2004). Hispanic Spaces, Latino Places: Community and Cultural Diversity in Contemporary America. University of Texas Press.

Baker, E. (2002). Flying While Arab - Racial Profiling and Air Travel Security. Journal of Air Law and Commerce, 67 (4), 1375-1406. https://scholar.smu.edu/jalc/vol67/iss4/9

Bangwayo-Skeete, P. F., & Skeete, R. W. (2016). Who Travels Visa-Free? Insights into Tourist Hassle-Free Travel. Journal of Travel Research, 56 (3), 407–418. doi:10.1177/0047287516643410

Beck, B. (2019). Jim Crow and Internment in Green Book and George Takei’s Allegiance. Multicultural Perspectives, 21(2), 133–136. doi:10.1080/15 210960.2019.1606643

Benvides, J. (2015). A Summary of Asian-Americans Travel Interests and Behaviors. University of Minnesota Tourism Center.

Bosch, A. (2005). Convertirse en americanos. Las minorías étnicas y las dos guerras mundiales en Estados Unidos. Ayer, 229-252.

Burkhard, S. (2018). Trekk Soft: Travel Trends Report 2018. 45-47. https://www.trekksoft.com/hubfs/website/resources/TrekkSoft_TTR-2018.pdf?hsLang=en

Burton, D., & Klemm, M. (2011). Whiteness, ethnic minorities and advertising in travel brochures. The Service Industries Journal, 31(5), 679–693. doi:10.1080/02642060902822083

Chen, H. A., Trinh, J., & Yang, G. P. (2020). AntiAsian sentiment in the United States – COVID-19 and history. The American Journal of Surgery, 220 (3), 556-557. doi:10.1016/j.amjsurg.2020.05.020

Diekmann, A., & Smith, M. K. (Eds.). (2015). Ethnic and minority cultures as tourist attractions (Vol. 65). Channel View Publications.

Dillette, Alana K.; Benjamin, Stefanie; and Carpenter, Chelsea (2018). Tweeting the Black Travel Experience: Social Media Counter narrative Stories as Innovative Insight on #TravelingWhileBlack. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327984361_Tweeting_the_Black_Travel_Experience_Social_Media_Counternarrative_Stories_as_Innovative_Insight_on_TravelingWhileBlack

Feagin, Joe r. & Cobas, José A. (2014). Latinos Facing Racism: Discrimination, Resistance, and Endurance. Paradigm Publishers.

Fernández-Salinero San Martin, S. (2019), Identificación organizacional y discriminación percibida en el ámbito laboral. Tesis Doctoral.

Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (España).

García, S. (2020), ¿Qué significa la sigla BIPOC? The New York Times, BIPOC: qué significa la sigla- The New York Times (nytimes.com)

Gibson, C. (2009). Geographies of tourism: Critical research on capitalism and local livelihoods. Progress in Human Geography, 33(4), 527–534.

Gruesz, K. S. (2002). Ambassadors of Culture: The Transamerican Origins of Latino Writing. Princeton University Press.

Habell-Pallan, M. (2005). Loca Motion: The Travels of Chicana and Latina Popular Culture. New York University Press.

Harrison, D. (2001). Tourism and the Less Developed World: Issues and Case Studies. CABI Publishing.

Hubbard, R. (1978). A Review of Selected Factors Conditioning Consumer Travel Behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 5(1), 1-21

Hudson, S., Fungo So, K. K., So, F., Meng, F., Cárdenas d. & li, J. (2018): Racial discrimination in tourism: the case of African-American travellers in South Carolina, Current Issues in Tourism, 23 (4), 438-451 DOI:10.1080/13683500.2018.1516743

Iturriaga, E. (2016), Las élites de la ciudad blanca. Discursos racistas sobre la otredad. Universidad Nacional de México. México.

Jamal, T., & Camargo, B. A. (2014). Sustainable tourism, justice and an ethic of care: Toward the just destination. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 22(1), 11–30.

Jones, C. (2014). “Ads send out more than the clients’ message” 121-130. En: Fiandaca, Daniele et al. (eds.), Hacker, Maker, Teacher, Thief: Advertising’s Next Generation. Creative Social, Reino Unido.

kennedy, R. A. (2013). Automobility, Hospitality, African American Tourism, and Mappy Victor H. Green’s Negro Motorist Green Book. (Master’s Thesis, East Carolina University). http://hdl.handle.net/10342/4210.

Kiprop, Victor. Which States are considered the Deep South?. 11 de abril 2019. World Atlas. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/which-states-are-considered-the-deep-south.html

Klemm, M. S., & Kelsey, S. J. (2004). Ethnic groups and the British travel industry: servicing a minority? The Service Industries Journal, 24(4), 115–128. doi:10.1080/0264206042000275226

Le, Thomas K.; Cha, Leah; Han, Hae-Ra & Tseng, Winston (2020). Anti-Asian Xenophobia and Asian American COVID-19 Disparities. American Journal of Public Health, 110 (9), 1344-1375.https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305846

Lee, E. (2002). The Chinese Exclusion Example: Race, Immigration, and American Gatekeeping, 1882-1924. Journal of American Ethnic History, 21 (3), 36-62.

Lee, K. J., & Scott, D. (2016). Racial Discrimination and African Americans’ Travel Behavior. Journal of Travel Research, 56(3), 381–392.

doi:10.1177/0047287516643184

Loewen, J. W. (2018) Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism. The New Press.

Lopez, M. H., Gonzalez-Barrera, A. y KrogstAd, J. M. (2018). Latinos and discrimination. Pew research Center.

MahaJan, V. (2012). The Arab World Unbound: Tapping into the Power of 350 Million Consumers. HB Printing.

MahaJan, V. (2013). Understanding the Arab Consumer. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2013/05/understanding-the-arab-consumer

Mandala Research (2018). African American Travel Represents $63 Billion Opportunity. AP News.https://apnews.com/press-release/prglobenewswire/a3ce2c034d2f0a9594fd18764f6faa83

Matache, M. (2020). Europe’s Buried History of Racism and Slavery. Político. 29 junio. https://www.politico.eu/article/europes-buried-history-of-racism-and-slavery/

Merriam-Webster Dictionary. The Deep South. Merriam-Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/the%20Deep%20South

Mexico Tourism Board to sponsor hispanics in travel caucus. Breaking Travel News!. 7 de septiembre 2012. https://www.breakingtravelnews.com/news/article/mexico-tourism-board-to-sponsor-hispanics-in-travel-caucus/

Meyerson, d. e., & Fletcher, J. K. (2000). A modest manifesto for shattering the glass ceiling. Harvard Business Review, 78(1), 126-136.

Mitchel, J. T., & Collins, L. (2013). The Green Book: “Safe Spaces” from Place to Place. The Geography Teacher, 11(1), 29-36. doi:10.1080/19338341.2013.854259

Nair, S. (2017). Passport privilege entrenches inequality. Eureka Street, 27 (24), 33-36.

National tour Association (2018). Hispanic Travel Market. https://ntaonline.com/markets/hispanic/

Nguyen, T. T., Criss, S., Dwivedi, P., Huang, D., Keralis, J., Hsu, E., … Nguyen, Q. C. (2020). Exploring U.S. Shifts in Anti-Asian Sentiment

with the Emergence of COVID-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(19), 703-22. doi:10.3390/ijerph17197032

Pérez, J. A., Moscovici, s., & Chulvi, B. (2002). Natura y cultura como principio de clasificación social. Anclaje de representaciones sociales sobre minorías étnicas. Revista de Psicología Social, 17(1), 51-67.

Responsible trAvel (2011). All Inclusive Holidays - Sinner or Saint? 6 de mayo. https://www.responsibletravel.com/copy/should-all-inclusiveholidays-be-banned

Safi, M. (2020). George Floyd killing triggers wave of activism around the world. The Guardian. 9 de junio, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/jun/09/george-floyd-killing-triggers-wave-of-activism-around-the-world

Scheyvens, R. & Biddulph, R. (2017), Inclusive Tourism Development, Tourism Geographies, 20 (4), 589-609 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2017.1381985

Nevels, C. (2007). Lynching to Belong: Claiming Whiteness Through Racial Violence. Texas A&M University Press

Statista Research Department (2019). Share of adults in the United States by how often they go on vacation within the U.S. as of January 2017, by ethnicity. https://www.statista.com/statistics/667508/frequency-us-adults-go-on-a-vacation-by-ethnicity/

Stephenson, M. L. (2006). Travel and the “Freedom of Movement”: Racialised Encounters and Experiences Amongst Ethnic Minority

Tourists in the EU. Mobilities, 1(2), 285–306.doi:10.1080/17450100600726662

Song, M. (2004), Introduction: Who’s at the bottom? Examining claims about racial hierarchy, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 27 (6), 859-877,

doi:10.1080/0141987042000268503

Tenjo Galarza, J. & Herrera Idárraga, P. (2009). Dos ensayos sobre discriminación: discriminación salarial y discriminación en acceso al

empleo por origen étnico y por género. Bogotá: Pontificia Universidad Javeriana.

Tipa, J. (2020). “Latino internacional, no güeros, no morenos”. Racismo colorista en la publicidad en México. Boletín de Antropología, 35 (59), 130-153.

Torabian, P., & Miller, M. C. (2016). Freedom of movement for all? Unpacking racialized travel experiences. Current Issues in Tourism, 20(9), 931–945.doi:10.1080/13683500.2016.1273882

Unwto, World Tourism Organization (2014). Recommendations for an accessible tourism for all. Madrid.

Unwto, World Tourism Organization (1999), Código ético mundial para el turismo, codigo_etico_mundial_-_turismo.pdf (urv.cat)

U.S. census bureAu (2010). https://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/2010_census/cb11-cn125.html

U.S. depArtMent of lAbor. Legal Highlight: The Civil Rights Act of 1964. https://www.dol.gov/agencies/oasam/civil-rights-center/statutes/civil-rights-act-of-1964

U.S. trAvel AssociAtion. U.S. Travel Answer Sheet. 2019. https://www.ustravel.org/answersheet

Wall, G. (2017). Ethnic and Minority Cultures as Tourist Attractions. Journal of Tourism Futures, 3 (2), 196-197.

Wang, Hansi lo (2019). New Report Takes a Deeper Look at How Latinos Experience Discrimination in the US. Pew Research Center:

All Things Considered. https://www.npr.org/2019/04/09/711536566/new-report-takes-a-deeper-look-at-how-latinos-experience-discrimination-in-the-u

Yang, E. C. l., Khoo-Lattimore, C., & Arcodia, C. (2018). Power and empowerment: How Asian solo female travellers perceive and negotiate risks. Tourism Management, 68, 32–45.

Zhou, M., & Xiong, Y. S. (2005). The multifaceted American experiences of the children of Asian immigrants: Lessons for segmented assimilation. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 28(6), 1119–1152. doi:10.1080/01419870500224455